1. US National Park System

       Main Goals: Conservation and Enjoyment

       Characteristics

       Centralized, exclusive management: National Park Service

       Specific regulations for each park

       Strong conservation mandate

       Concessions system

       Engaging multiple stakeholders

2. US cases of National Park

(1) Great Smoky Mountains National Park

       Activist promoters

       Local leaders support

       Opposition from logging interests

       Promoters must buy land

       Poor residents displaced

       President completes buy-out

(2) National Parks in Washington

       Olympic NP, Mount Rainier NP, North Cascades NP Service Complex

       Logging areas, initial resistance

       1950s: “Parks for People”

       1960s: lean toward conservation

       Seasonal tourism

       1970s on: Locals demand tourism development

       Local use of resources granted, but controls

       Business concessions, careful zoning

(3) Great Basin National Park

       Established 1986 after long effort

       Mining interests, Grazing interests obstruct

       “The government’s trying to take our land”

       Reagan Administration obstructs

       Smaller park than planned

       Grazing, existing mining claims allowed

       Cattle in the park: tourists and conservationists dislike them.

       National Park Conservation Association raises money to pay grazers to relinquish grazing rights

       Grazing halts in 1999

3. Altogether

       Particular laws for particular NPs together with major laws setting general principles

       Institutions are important.

       Strong conservation mandate and government commitment

       Room for stakeholders to work out specifics

-        Local governments               -      Federal government

-        Residents                             -      Business interests

-        Conservation advocates

       These interactions change over time

       Context is as important as the content of  the law itself.

4. National Parks in Northwest Yunnan

       Ongoing TNC campaign

       Collaboration with provincial government

       Assistance to local governments

       Local government tourism development initiatives

(1) Legal processes

       NPMB and NGOs work on prefectural law

       Administrative conflicts bog legislation down

       Provincial National Park Management Office

       Mandate to standardize NPs

-        Other NPs

       Little direct authority

       Technical Standards based on Nature Reserve Regulations

(2) Suggestions for Management Systems of Meili and Laojunshan National Parks

       Main points:

       Provincial Law

       Strengthen NPMB

       Concessions

5. Questions

       Who are the stakeholders?

       How can those stakeholders be appropriately represented?

       What laws and institutions are appropriate for achieving effective conservation in China?

       How can those institutions and laws be brought about, and by whom?

作者：John Aloysius Collins Zinda          

文章来源：Ph.D. Candidate, the University of Wisconsin Madison,U.S.A.